Readings in Instructional Systems Technology

This annotated bibliography is intended to serve as a guide to the field of Instructional Systems Technology (IST). It provides pointers to and summaries of exemplary works from the field which illuminate the core concepts that comprise it. The readings have been grouped by theme, but many of the works do not fit neatly in only one; judgment was applied and yours may differ from that of the author. Themes are listed alphabetically and within them, the works are presented alphabetically in keeping with convention, but in many cases, the reader may want to read them chronologically to gain the greatest effect. The reader will come away with an understanding of evolution of the field.

In reviewing the themes, one will note that Analysis, Design, Development and Evaluation represent steps in the ADDIE instructional design model and that only implementation is missing. The readings in these sections present perspectives on practice in each of these areas, but the items which might be selected for implementation tend to work nicely in other categories. A prime example is Systems Theory, which discusses the inter-related nature of subsystems and the ensuing complexity involved in introducing change in such circumstances.

Systems Theory is an important foundation for approaching organizations as well as the human mind. The readings in Learning Theory describe different perspectives on how people learn, each with their own implications for the design of instruction. These theories may seem to oppose each other, but in many ways they are complimentary and each is valuable in certain circumstances. The Media Theory readings cover our evolving understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of various media within a learning context and how our views towards media have evolved over time.

The History of IST recounts, retrospectively, how the field has grown since its inception. The demands upon it have changed significantly since its early days in World War II onboarding enlisted men. The economy and our population's educational needs have shifted and branched in many directions and the field is working to keep pace with both technological capabilities and instructional needs. Human Performance Technology (HPT) is the field of study generating theory for performance improvement. It shares many common roots with IST and the two continute to contribute to each other's growth. The key difference is HPT's challenge that many factors contribute to performance improvement and that instruction is often not the most effective solution. The final theme is Inquiry Methodology which describes some of the key methodologies we have used to develop new knowledge, theory and the field itself.

This bibliography is interactive to aid navigation. Clicking the plus signs will expand the related section with my analysis and description information.

Analysis

Some form of analysis of the existing situation is a part of every instructional design process. These analyses come in many forms and they differ primarily in the perspective from which the analysis is performed. These readings introduce performance analysis and Activity Theory. These are but two analytic perspectives and others do exist. Each has its adherents and offers its own unique value to the problems upon which it is brought to bear.

Jonassen, D. H., Tessmer, M., & Hannum, W. H. (1999). Task analysis methods for instructional design. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.: Task analysis is the process of decomposing and understanding that which is to be taught. This book explains what task analysis is and how it should be performed at a high level before moving on to provide different perspectives and frameworks to use for different types of analysis as well as methods to employ. This work is included as it makes a strong case for task analysis as the most important part of instructional design.
Mager, R. F., & Pipe, P. (1997). Analyzing performance problems. Analysis (Third.). Atlanta, GA: Center for effective performance.: Part I of this book digs into the common conceptions of instructional design to shed light upon the assumptions implied by their form and subsequently challenges these assumptions. The authors provide guidance for those embarking upon performance improvement ventures in an effort to save time by focusing on the true issue(s) at hand, presenting them in such a way that stakeholders can accept them and spending time evaluating whether a potential resolution is worth the effort of its pursuit. This work, with its focus on analysis and its warning not to accept the request for training at face value highlights the value of the Human Performance Technology perspective.
Nardi, B. A., & Kaptelinin, V. (2006). Activity Theory in a nutshell. Acting with technology: Activity Theory and interaction design (pp. 29-73). Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press.: In this article, the authors explain Activity Theory and discusses the advantage gained from using the comprehensive concept of Activity as the unit of analysis. Indeed, nothing has any meaning outside the contect of Activity. To assist the reader in accommodating this perspective, they include the historical evolution of the theory from its early roots in Russian psychology with Vygotsky and on to the ambitious work of Leontiev. This article provides an accessible overview of Activity Theory, a framework embraced by Instructional Systems Technolgy scholars for research, but which may also serve as a source of insight through analysis.

Design

Instructional design practitioners are workers in a design field. Many models have been developed to codify a step-by-step procedure for consistently achieving quality results. However, some in the field are questioning this approach and studying the design process itself for insights into instructional design praxis. Furthermore, scholars are drawing comparisons to other design fields.

Brooks, F. P. (2010). The Design of Design. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.: The author of this book calls upon his years of experience as a designer and a scholar to frame a discussion of design and how it works. A recurrent theme throughout the book is that of the conceptual integrity of the design. Design must be an iterative process because it is not possible to fully specify requirements prior to beginning. The author discusses the strengths and weaknesses of design teams and makes strong recommendations. The book also includes numerous case studies of various projects the author has been involved in. This book presents a view of design from the perspective of one familiar with both successful design and development.
Cross, N. (2001). Designerly Ways of Knowing : Design Discipline Versus Design Science. Design Issues, 17(3), 49-55. doi:10.1162/074793601750357196: This article serves to frame the potential value of the models and processes that are so prevalent in the field of Insructional Design (ID) by arguing that any rigid design process is of limited utility. This article begins its desicussion of the science of design by presenting the last few cycles of attempts to codify and record its process. It contrasts science with design, the former 's practice being perceived to conform to a reproducible method while the latter has consistently defied such attempts. Ultimately, the author reaches the conclusion that design is not a science in the traditional, consistently reproducible sense and that research should no longer focus on determining rules, but rather on understanding how design actually works.
Cross, N. (2011). Design Thinking. New York, NY: Berg.: This accessible book begins with discussion of current views on what constitutes design and design thinking. It explains that there are currently three methods of studying the actual design process and presents examples of each and the insights derived from them. The data collected includes group design process as well as individuals. The author is one of today's most prominent design researchers and this work is of great value in understanding the 'design' part of 'instructional design'.
Gagné, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1988). The Events of Instruction. Principles of Instructional Design (Third., pp. 177-197). San Francisco, CA: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.: Gagné's nine events of instruction are an oft-referenced staple of the field, used sometimes as a sanity check on instructional designs. It is also a clearly presented application of cognitive psychological theory. This important work explains, from the perspective of cognitive psychology, what instruction is and how it is successfully achieved. It breaks down this activity into a series of nine events which can be reasonably expected to occur during the learning process with the goal of enabling instructional designers to prepare for them in the design of learning episodes. The nine events are presented in relation to the cognitive processes from which they are derived and then explained. Much time is spent indicating that the process is flexible. Finally, an example is presented.
Lawson, B. (1997). Route Maps of the Design Process. How Designers Think. Architectural Press.: The author explores design praxis to understand just what happens when a designer does his/her work. After attempting to map observed activities to proposed design process models flaws or inconsistencies are identified and these models are found to be wanting. Resolution comes in the admission that design does not occur along a predictable or even identifiable series of steps and instead it jumps back and forth between different and often unclassifiable actions. This chapter is important for this insight which apparently flies in the face of Instructional Design's many prescriptive models.
Merrill, M. D. (2009). First Principles of Instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth & A. A. Carr-Chellman (Eds.), Instructional-Design Theories and Models Volume III (Vol. 50, pp. 43-59). New York, NY: Routledge. doi:10.1007/BF02505024: This article follows up on Merrill's 2002 work distilling First Principles of Instruction that are common to successful instructional interventions and learning theories. The effort is the result of an effort to answer a challenge laid down by Reigeluth in 1994. In addition to presenting and describing each of the five principles, specific techniques are suggested for the principles. The principles have not changed since the 2002 work, but it does cite a study which corroborates the results.
Merriënboer, J. J. G., Clark, R. E., & Croock, M. B. M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-61. doi:10.1007/BF02504993: This article presents an overview of an instructional design model to support complex learning. While others focus primarily on breaking down a task into its component parts and expects the learner to transfer these skills to novel situations which require combinations of these skills, this model attempts to introduce all the skills at once in an authentic situation. The four components of this model are: learning tasks, supportive information, just-in-time information and part-task practice. This model has generated significant interest for its focus on complex learning situations and is seeing efforts at validation.
Nelson, H. G., & Stolterman, E. (2003). The Design Way (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, Inc.: This book calls for the emergence of a design culture and describes the components of design practice in doing so. The book explores the foundations of design as a practice and the viewpoint of its practitioners. It proceeds to the methods and skills employed during design and concludes with a philosophical discussion of the implications and ethics of design practice. This book can serve numerous purposes in an Instructional Design (ore related) doctoral curriculum, the most obvious of which is providing an in-depth understanding of the culture of our own skilled practitioners. In addition, one might view this through the lens of Communities of Practice, Legitimate Perhipheral Participation or other such frameworks to understand and target designers for instructional interventions.
Rowland, G. (1992). What do instructional designers actually do? An initial investigation of expert practice. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 5(2), 65–86. Wiley Online Library. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1937-8327.1992.tb00546.x/pdf: The author of this article explored design praxis among novice and expert instructional designer (ID) practitioners and compared the observations with what the literature prescribes as ID process. Actual practice was found not only to deviate between novice and expert designers, but also between what IDs do and what the literature says they should. This article points out that, despite our practitioners being labeled designers and the fact that our literature prescribes what designers should do, we are only beginning to realise that we do not know what truly goes on during design.
Smith, K. M. (2009). What Do We Make of Design? Design as a Concept in Educational Technology. Educational Technology, 49(4), 3-17. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/recordDetail?accno=EJ865542: This article presents the results of an analysis of the influential literature in the field of Instructional Design specifically in regard to what constitutes the concept of design and how it is applied. The qualitative research methods utilized consiste of determining source categories, populating them with influential representative document, coding the themes that emerge upon review and finally, synthesis of a written document. The analysis revealed seven characteristics of design in educational technology, which are then described in further detail, with particular care taken to highlight any open questions or ambiguities. The article concludes with prescriptions for how the field ought to move forward to address these concerns.

Development

Little has been written specifically on the development process associated with instructional systems interventions. Much of the earlier works in this section provide recommendations for components of the instruction that are apart from the content itself, often referred to as message design. Even the so-called "development models" tend to describe the entire process and not simply development and a case could easily be made for re-categorization of many of these documents. However, the Appelman (2009) reading does directly address the development of instruction due to a growing interest in the use of computer games for learning and the fact that such projects require diverse skills and significant investment of resources.

Appelman, R. L. (2009). Defining the Development Pipeline for Meaningful Play. International Simulation & Games Association Conference. Singapore.: This paper highlights the collaboration required to develop a 3D computer game that integrates learning goals. It begins by defining the term meaningful play and presents a brief history of the use of games within the field of education. It proceeds to describe the key players in their development as well as the process by which they are created. The author breaks development into teams responsible for aspects of the completed product, including story, programming, project management, art and audio and presents artifacts used to facilitate communications between them. The paper concludes with a discussion of the merits of collaboration when tackling such a project due to the wide array of skill sets required and the complexity of such projects.
Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). Survey of Instructional Development Models (Fourth.). Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology.: This book briefly examines the purposes models serve as tools for the development of instruction. It proceeds to present a taxonomy of models targeting different sorts of deployments: classroom, stand-alone product or large systems. With fifteen development models summarised and explained with their accompanying graphic representations (where such exist), this book serves as a quick guide to the methods recommended for use in the field.
Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of instructional development, 10(3), 2–10. Springer. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/index/72828K22416P4156.pdf: This study introduces the Attention, Relevance, Confidence (ARCS) model of motivation which is commonly discussed by instructional designers (IDs) today. The simple, four step model provides guidance to IDs aiming to motivate their learners and maintain that motivation with respect to the content of their instruction. The model complements other instructional design theories since it does not target the learning directly, but instead upon creating an environment (e.g. mental state) conducive to learning. The author reports on two studies which support the applicability and usability of this model.
Silber, K. H. (1998). The cognitive approach to training development: A practitioner’s assessment. Educational Technology Research & Development, 46(4), 58-72. doi:10.1007/BF02299674: This article serves as an effective introduction to cognitive psychology and theories of learning. Additionally, it provides an example of a prescriptive ID model with a brief demonstration based upon a cognitive approach. It covers the intersection between cognitive psychology and instructional design (ID) practice. It presents a summary of cognitive psychologists' understanding of how human cognition functions and the mechanisms involved. The descriptions of each mechanism are accompanied by the implications they hold for instructional design practice. The article also prescribes a set of heuristics, a model, of how an Instructional Designer can use this information to craft effective instruction.

Evaluation

Throughout the history of IST, evaluation of its products has taken many forms. Much of this has focused on measuring the outcomes according to the strength of the outcome and its value to the student. This section includes discussions of different types of evaluation and presentation of traditional evaluation frameworks such as Kirkpatrick's Four Levels and Bloom's Taxonomy as well as a look at usability studies aimed at reducing the need for instruction. Bichelmeyer's work recommends a deeper look at evaluation, going far beyond outcomes and not taking for granted an appropriate design or implementation.

Bichelmeyer, B. A., & Horvitz, B. S. (2006). Comprehensive Performance Evaluation: Using logic models to develop a theory-based approach for avaluation of Human Performance Technology interventions. In J. Pershing (Ed.), Handbook of Human Performance Technology (Third., pp. 1165-1189). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: In this book chapter, the author criticizes the 'levels' approach to evaluation common in Human Performance Technology (HPT) contexts and proposes an alternative rooted in the application of theory. It is argued that the existing approaches focus on outcomes and often offer greatest utility with summative evaluations, but are of little help in improving upon an implementation. The author proposes that evaluation should begin with the development of a logic model of the theory inspiring the design of the intervention and build from there to outputs. In contrast with the other literature included, this document calls for a much more thorough approach to evaluation — one with the potential to pinpoint not only problems with the implementation, but also of mismatch between design and implementation and ultimately, flaws in the design itself.
Fitzpatrick, J. L., Sanders, J. R., & Worthen, B. R. (2004). Evaluation’s basic purpose, uses and conceptual distinctions. Program Evaluation: Alternative Approaches and Practical Guidelines (Third., pp. 3-29). San Francisco, CA: Pearson.: This book chapter presents the different sorts of evaluations and the value they offer. This work begins with a definition of evaluation and then differentiates evaluation from research despite apparent similarities. Next we get a look at the purposes of evaluation and the activities performed by those involved. The high level categories of summative and formative evaluation as well as needs assessment, process evaluation and outcome evaluations are described and explained, including the purposes of each and how they relate to the life of the program under evaluation. Finally we explore the advantages and disadvantages of internal vs. externally conducted evaluations. The chapter provides a thorough introduction to program evaluation.
Frick, T. W., Chadha, R., Watson, C., & Zlatkovska, E. (2009). Improving course evaluations to improve instruction and complex learning in higher education. Educational Technology Research and Development, 58(2), 115-136. doi:10.1007/s11423-009-9131-z: This article relates a study designed to draw a correlation between the presence of Merrill's First Principles of Instruction, academic learning time (ALT) and learner performance. Based upon analysis of the survey data collected in this study, the presence of both First Principles and ALT correlated to an increased likelihood of high mastery. Furthermore, the resultant instrument provides instructors with useful insight into where the deficiencies lay. This study is included to demonstrate how design theories can be used for evaluation purposes.
Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1994). Evaluating training programs: The four levels. Evaluating Training Programs (Vol. 6, pp. 17-26). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. doi:10.1002/hrdq.3920060310: These two chapters provide a brief introduction to training evaluations. Chapter two makes an argument to support performing any sort of evaluation and reduces the need to three primary reasons: demonstrating a need for training; determining whether to maintain a program at all; or identifying where improvements are warranted. Chapter three explains Kirkpatrick's four levels of evaluation and makes a case for the unique value of each. This brief reading serves as an effective introduction to training evaluations by making the case for their need and helping readers to understand the different types of evaluation possible.
Kirkpatrick, J., & Kirkpatrick, W. K. (2009). The Kirkpatrick Four Levels: A fresh look after 50 years, 1959–2009. Training Magazine, (April).: Although this article reads like an advertisement for products and services, it provides a useful understanding of Kirkpatrick's model and its existence validates the utility of the model, having become part of the lexicon over the previous fifty years. It revisits the four levels introduced by Donald Kirkpatrick in 1959 for evaluating training outcomes. Since its introduction, this model has gained widespread acceptance in understanding what makes a meaningful evaluation and generating results that can then be applied towards further development. The authors, then present an updated version of the model which attempts to fill in some of the details missing in the original.
Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy: An overview. Theory into practice, 41(4), 212–218. Taylor & Francis. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15430421tip4104_2: In this article, the author (also one of the original authors) presents a revised version of Bloom's Taxonomy (named after the first author), a staple of educational evaluation. The original taxonomy, published in 1956, categorizes types of learning objectives in terms of increasing complexity and value to the learner. After a brief presentation, he revises the taxonomy to provide greater consistency in the terms and updating them to reflect the latest thinking in cognitive psychology as of publication. As a byproduct, the new structure lends itself to a table format which simplifies application. Bloom's Taxonomy has remained in use for over fifty years as a framework for evaluating educational treatments and justifying improvements to them. This article summarizes the taxonomy, its history and updates it to fill in perceived gaps.
Rubin, J. (1994). The problem of unusable products and systems. In T. Hudson (Ed.), Handbook of usability testing: How to plan, design, and conduct effective tests. New York, NY: Wiley.: This book chapter explores the problem of the usability (or lack thereof) of technology products as a category. Five reasons for poor usability are identified and distilled to a single, high-level solution: user-centered design (UCD). UCD is defined and the author presents methods and techniques aimed at successfully implementing such an approach. These are characterized by regular contact with the intended users of the tool or system, to understand their needs and maintain a trajectory that is in line with those needs. This chapter represents the approach to Instructional Design taken by Human Performance Technology practitioners: design the system for use rather than spending the time and money on teaching users how to engage with the system.

History of Instructional Systems Technology

These writings document the history of IST and question its current state and future direction. Some of these documents provide definitions for the field and for valid research within the field. Others take a critical approach by pointing out its shortcomings and sometimes offering solutions. The fact that each of these documents pulls in a different direction is an indicator that IST is decidedly still an evolving field.

Gordon, J., & Zemke, R. (2000). The attack on ISD. Training, 37(4), 43-53. VNU eMedia, Inc.: This article attacks the practice of Instructional Systems Design (ISD) for four reasons: it is too slow and clumsy to meet today's challenges; good training can be produced more quickly without following it's strictures and therefore it is unnecessary overhead; when followed strictly, it produces poor training; it plays to the lowest common denominator. The critiques are built upon quotes from practitioners including Diane Gayeski, John Murphy, Fred Nickols, Geary A. Rummler, Sivasailam "Thiagi" Thiagarajan and Donald Tosti. This polemic quickly became required reading within IST programs as it spurs reflection and debate as to the efficacy of ISD and its methods.
Molenda, M., & Boling, E. (2009). Research and Theory in Instructional Systems Technology at Indiana University. In M. Orey, V. J. McClendon, & R. M. Branch (Eds.), Educational Media and Technology Yearbook (Vol. 34, pp. 25-45). Boston, MA: Springer US. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-09675-9: In this article, the authors present a sample of the research projects carried out in the Instructional Systems Technology department at Indiana University. It describes the projects, their theoretical bases and some of their key findings. The program at Indiana University has existed since at least 1969 and has maintained a 'systems' approach to its emphasis areas: message design, instructional design/development, evaluation and integration, systems design and management and diffusion/adoption. The article serves as a survey of the sort of work being done in the field as of its writing (2009). It introduces theoretical frameworks from the perspective of scholars working to extend the knowledge base with respect to them.
Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). What is Instructional-Design Theory and How is it Changing? In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-Design Theories and Models Volume II (pp. 5-29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.: This book chapter defines instructional design (ID) theory and contrasts it with other theories and instructional design processes. Characteristics are identified: as design-oriented theory, it is probabilistic and not deterministic and their prescriptions are broad and do not carry much detail; they specify methods of instruction and indicators of situations where they should and should not be used; as broad prescriptions, their methods can be broken down further into component methods. Having described ID theory, the author proceeds to identify trends in the systems within which designed instruction operates and it's implications both for ID theory and practice. In addition to providing a thorough explanation what ID theory is, why it's important and how it is evolving (a valuable contribution to scholars approaching the field), it also offers an example of well-structured scholarly writing.
Seels, B. (1994). The 1994 Definition of the Field. Instructional Technology: The Definition and Domains of the Field (pp. 1-22). Association for Educational Communications and Technology.: This article provides insight into the key concerns of the participants in the field of Instructional Technology and how those concerns have evolved over time. As the primary organization for Instructional Systems Technologists, the Association for Educational Communications Technology (AECT) maintains a definition of the field of Instructional Technology. In this article, the author updates the definition from the previous version presented seventeen years earlier. In doing so, she looks at the evolution of the field from a profession focused on practice to a field combining practice and study. She reviews the choice of 'instruction' over 'education' and resolves that the two are synonymous, but opts for 'instruction' due to its prevalence in the United States. She explores the systemic nature of instruction in that seemingly localized changes can have far-reaching impacts throughout the system. With the stage thus set, she analyzes and provides justifications for each part of the new definition, exploring the relationship between each component and the core of theory and practice. Finally, comparisons are drawn between earlier versions of the definition and those which have been used (but not by AECT) in the interim.
Wilson, B. G. (2005). Broadening our foundation for instructional design: Four pillars of practice. Educational technology, 45(2), 10–15. Retrieved from http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/~bwilson/Pillars.html: The author of this article published in a special issue of Educational Technology on cultural studies recounts his own evolution through years of practice to lay the foundation for an alternative approach to instructional design. The approach he presents takes the form of four pillars that blend social, psychological, cultural, ethical and experiential concerns. The author argues that such an approach is necessary to do justice to the work of instructional design practitioners. Futhermore, as we train our practitioners, they must be cognizant of these issues if they are to be successful. This alternative framing of Instructional Systems Technology is indicative of an emerging reframing of the field as one with a strong component of design rather than that of a science as has been prevalent throughout our formal history.
Zemke, R., & Rossett, A. (2002). A hard look at ISD. Training, 39(2), 26-34.: This article examines the criticisms levelled at the results of Instructional Systems Design (ISD) practice, specifically in response to the article titled "The Attack on ISD" (Gordon & Zemke, 2000). The authors aimed to discern whether it was ISD process that was flawed or whether the problem lay with the practitioners themselves. To answer the question, they used communications from scholars and practitioners within the field. The process is critiqued for being too generic, too linear and rigid to allow for creativity, not specific enough to offer valuable guidance or too focused on inputs instead of outputs. Practitioners are criticized for adhering too closely to a process that is better viewed as a set of heuristics and this is attributed to the approach taken to ISD by the military, attempting to support unskilled designers. The authors conclude that ISD suffers from the unrealistic expectations resulting from having been oversold, but that it is a viable solution to training problems.

Human Performance Technology

Human Performance Technology (HPT) is an offshoot of IST that differentiates itself by questioning all assumptions and seeking the most efficient path to performance improvement — even if it means recommending something other than training. HPT scholars focus heavily on asking and appropriately framing the right questions during analysis and keeping all options open when determining the most appropriate solution. Much of this work has focused on corporate development. Many of their concerns track those of IST as a whole, but the emphases differ.

Addison, R. M., & Haig, C. (2006). The Performance Architect’s Essential Guide to the Performance Technology Landscape. Performance Improvement, 45(10), 38-47. doi:10.1002/pfi: This brief, reprinted handbook chapter provides an overview of Human Performance Technology (HPT) and walks the reader through the HPT process itself. It is the job of the Performance Technologist to analyze the current situation for any gaps then design and implement interventions to improve the outcomes. This article is a quick read with many diagrams and models that help to illuminate the discussion.
Brandenburg, D. C., & Binder, C. V. (1999). Emerging Trends in Human Performance Interventions. In H. D. Stolovitch & E. J. Keeps (Eds.), (2nd ed., pp. 843-866). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.: This handbook chapter made high level predictions about the progression of trends within society. The authors analyse these trends and look at how they are emerging and how Human Performance Technologists can involve themselves and expect to proceed. At the time of this writing, more than ten years after publication, these predictions are largely being borne out and therefore it is worthwhile to familiarise oneself with their analysis and recommendations. Comparison with what is being seen today is a valuable exercise from which to draw insight.
Cho, Y., Jo, S. J., Park, S., Kang, I., & Chen, Z. (2011). The current state of human performance technology: A citation network analysis of Performance Improvement Quarterly, 1988–2010. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 24(1), 69–95. Wiley Online Library. doi:10.1002/piq: This article begins with a brief review of the history of Human Performance Technology (HPT) and of various analyses which have already been performed on earlier versions of the body of data under consideration. It proceeds to a Citation Network Analysis (CNA), a technique for analyzing the topic areas and interrelationships of a body of research articles using primarily quantitative methods. This article not only presents a valuable analysis of the field and the themes, both extant and emerging within it, but also demonstrates the value of such a techique.
Mager, R. F., & Pipe, P. (1997). Analyzing performance problems. Analysis (Third.). Atlanta, GA: Center for effective performance.: Part I of this book digs into the common conceptions of instructional design to shed light upon the assumptions implied by their form and subsequently challenges these assumptions. The authors provide guidance for those embarking upon performance improvement ventures in an effort to save time by focusing on the true issue(s) at hand, presenting them in such a way that stakeholders can accept them and spending time evaluating whether a potential resolution is worth the effort of its pursuit. This work, with its focus on analysis and its warning not to accept the request for training at face value highlights the value of the Human Performance Technology perspective.
Pershing, J. A. (Ed.). (2006). Handbook of human performance technology: principles, practices, and potential (3rd ed., p. 1364). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.: This book presents the foundations of Human Performance Technology (HPT) as a discipline. This collection of essays by formal and informal leaders and subject-matter experts in the field chronicles the history of this field of study, surveys the methods used and speculates on its future. It paints a picture of where the field sees itself at the time of publication. HPT builds upon Instructional Design/Instructional Technology as an offshoot focusing more heavily on gap analysis rather than design and development of training (as a foregone conclusion). The length of this book precludes its consumption in entirety as an introduction, but other works in this bibliography are drawn from it and familiarity with its contents is recommended.
Wile, D. (1996). Why doers do. Performance and Instruction, 35(2), 30-35. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pfi.4170350209/abstract: In this article, the author analyzes Human Performance models from five of the most prominent names in the field of Human Performance Technology (HPT) for their core criteria. He then synthesizes a new model that attempts to incorporate the main points of each into a single, unified model which might be used by all HPT practitioners. The new model presents seven factors that contribute to performance: organizational systems, incentives, cognitive support, tools, physical environment, skills/knowledge and inherent ability. He then defends the key decisions made during the formation of the model and demonstrates its value by providing examples of how it should be used. This article offers consistency to the field of HPT by reconciling the vocabulary already in use and standardizing it.

Inquiry Methodology

While all fields inquiry share some aspects in common, individual fields develop methodologies specifically to address the particular questions it poses. As a social science, IST employs both quantitative and qualitative methods to answer the questions it asks and the Savenye and Robinson article provides an excellent introduction to these methods at a high level. The other two articles describe methodologies used to leverage the design process itself within IST.

Barab, S., Evans, M. A., & Baek, E.-ok. (2001). Activity Theory as a lens for characterizing the participatory unit. Learning, 199-214.: This article presents Activity Theory as a framework to help instructional and performance technologists think about work as an activity. This product of Russian psychology formulated by Leont'ev and influenced by Vygotsky, focuses on activity, or purposeful actions which are a combination of the actor and the environment in which they act, viewed as an entity (the activity) which evolves over time. As such, its unit of analysis, activity, incorporates the subject and object of an action as well as cultural/social influences as well. By focusing on the collective rather than the individual, it promises to enable our designs to continue to be effective into the future. The theory is compared with other theories that focus on the collective rather than the individual: Communities of Practice, Actor Network Theory and Institutional Theory. The theory can be applied to and inform both analysis and design. This article, though dense, relates Activity Theory to education.
Reigeluth, C. M., & Frick, T. (1999). Formative Research: A Methodology for Creating and Improving Design Theories. Instructional-Design Theories and Models Volume II (pp. 633-651). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.: This article describes and discusses the value of formative research, a methodology for improving design theory for instructional practice. The focus here is on improving practice rather than describing the activities that it is meant to impact. In this way, it bridges the gap between theory and practice within the field. The basic premise is that instruction crafted using instructional design theory is found to be flawed, these flaws may represent a reification of flaws in the theory upon which it was based. Therefore the implementation is studied for what it may reflect in the design. This research methodology is particularly interesting for its focus on instructional practice.
Savenye, W. C., & Robinson, R. S. (1996). Qualitative Research Issues and Methods: An Introduction for Educational Technologists. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology. London: Simon & Schuster Macmillan.: This handbook chapter serves as a primer in qualitative research for educational technology researchers. The authors provide an understanding of what different people mean when they refer to 'qualitative research' and they introduce various qualitative methods of data collection followed by data analysis and reporting. The document concludes with a brief discussion of ethics, how one judges the merit of a qualitative study and a list of references for futher learning. This document is valuable because the introduction it provides is in the context of educational technology.
Wang, F., & Hannafin, M. J. (2005). Design-Based Research and Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(4), 5–23. Springer. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/index/A582109091287128.pdf: In this article, the authors present a cohesive description and justification for employing a Design-Based Research (DBR) methodology. As Instructional Systems Technology(IST) is an applied discipline, DBR is a good fit since it integrates theory building, validation and application within a practical and authentic design process. This article is written in the context of technology-enhanced learning environments (TELEs), but in practice, TELEs simply serve as a context for concrete examples while methodology itself is broadly applicable. If anything, the TELE content grounds it and makes it more readable, rendering an easily read document.

Learning Theory

To be effective in promoting learning, we must come to an understanding of how learning works. Many theories exist and the book by Driscoll (2005) provides a good description of the major ones. None of these theories are entirely applicable in all situations and some criticisms and alternative perspectives are included to situate the reader and provide some grounding. In the absence of a unified theory of learning, each individual theory offers value and can offer the designer guidance in crafting effective instruction.

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., Cocking, R. R., Donovan, M. S., & Pellegrino, J. W. (Eds.). (2000). Learning: From speculation to science. How People Learn (pp. 3-27). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.: This work looks briefly at the evolution of educational goals throughout the 20th century and identifies a trend moving away from knowledge and basic skills and towards higher level problem-solving skills. This traces the evolution of learning theories. This is later distilled into prescriptions for instructional design practice. By building up from theory to practice, the authors make the linkages clear.
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32. Sage Publications. Retrieved from http://edr.sagepub.com/content/18/1/32.short: This article presents Situated Cognition as a theory of learning. The theory, an offshoot of the work of Vygotsky and Leontiev, contends that learning is, by necessity, situated within a particular context and that by taking this fact into account the instruction we design can be more effective. They argue that authentic (or realistic) tasks and activities be used to facilitate learning. To this end, the authors propose cognitive apprenticeship whose methods enculturate students through authentic tasks much as would occur in an apprenticeship. Examples of these techniques are described.
Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Pearson Education, Inc. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/recordDetail?accno=ED369772: This book serves as a primary text for introducing students to the major learning theories in use and influencing the research and practice of Instructional Systems Technology. Beginning with a history of the approaches to studying learning, it subsequently approaches each theory non-judgmentally in the context of their originators. The author works through behaviorism, cognitive information processing, schema theory, situated cognition to developmental approaches and the social learning work of Vygotsky. She presents the biological bases for memory and learning and then discusses self-regulation. Gagne's theory of instruction is presented. Gagne's theory of instruction as well as Constructivism are presented as theories of instruction that apply the foregoing learning theories. This text serves as a concise introduction to the various learning theories and later as a reference for same.
Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50–71. Wiley Online Library. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1937-8327.1993.tb00605.x/pdf: The authors of this article set out to provide a practical guide to three prominent categories of learning theories: behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism. It begins by making a case for the need for practitioners to know about learning theories and how they are important to the design of instruction. They move on to define learning and frame learning theories as distinct based upon how they would answer seven questions about learning and instructional design. A brief history is presented before defining each theory by answering the seven framing questions. This article provides a simple and approachable definition of three types of learning theories and compares and contrasts them with each other.
Hannafin, M., & Hill, J. (2007). Epistemology and the design of learning environments. In R. Reiser & J. Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (2nd ed., pp. 53-61). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.: This article compares and contrasts the two major epistemologies in the field of Instructional Design: Positivism and Relativism. Positivism posits that knowledge exists in the world, is absolute and must be imparted to learners. Relativists take the approach that knowledge is the unique interpretation of experiences that the learner constructs within themselves. It goes on to introduce the systems approach to design and explains how a designer's subscribing to a particular epistemology informs their efforts towards design — that each design is influenced by one of the foregoing. However, the author's conclusion is that both epistemologies offer valuable insights into the practice of Instructional Design and warns designers against rejecting one in favor of another.
Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work : An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Learning, 41(2), 75-86.: The authors of this article are making a case for the superiority of guided instruction rather than what they view as a growing trend towards minimal guidance. The move towards minimal guidance is attributed to such techniques as discovery learning, inquiry learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning and constructivist learning. The argument includes an overview of the "human cognitive architecture" and results of empirical studies which show that guidance offers a benefit until the learner has developed sufficient internal guidance through knowledge and experience. The article points to ineffective learning situations where the insufficient guidance was provided and uses this to attack a constructivist approach to instruction. As such, it serves as a counterargument to constructivism.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1993). Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Situated Learning (pp. 29-43). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.: This book chapter introduces the characteristic of situated cognition known as Legitimate Peripheral Participation. This phenomenon is characterized as the process by which an aspiring learner begins outside the community of practice, watching, but gradually works their way in by taking on tasks with which the community engages itself. As time progresses, the participant takes on increasingly complex tasks as their understanding grows and they become a part of the community. The authors describe the process by which they arrived at this construct, beginning with empirical apprenticeship data and moving beyond to a broader view and, viewing this as the first step in development of this framework, do not approach practical application. In addition to serving as an effective introduction to Legitimate Peripheral Participation, this chapter is of value to aspiring scholars because it details the journey traveled in this effort to create new knowledge.
Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas. portal.acm.org (pp. 19-37 and 120-134). New York: Basic Books, Inc. Retrieved from http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=SERIES11430.1095592: In this book, the author observes children as they interact with their environments, including the tools available to them, and draws inferences about how learning occurs. The LOGO programming environment is presented, which makes use of a mechanical robot (or Turtle) to draw patters on paper. This environment is designed to allow students to explore mathematical concepts and construct their own understanding of related concepts as a result. The author has been influential within the field of Instructional Systems Technology and this is an example of constructionist principles at work.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. (M. Cole, S. Scribner, V. John-Steiner, & E. Souberman, Eds.) (p. 159). Harvard University Press.: This book presents Vygotsky's thinking on how we learn through interactions with others as well as providing insight into how he arrived at his theories of learning. Included is his description of and grounds for learning through interaction with a more capable other coupled with work within the Zone of Proximal Development (where you are pushed beyond your individual capabilities and where learning occurs). Additionally, he discusses 'play' as an important activity in facilitating learning. Vygotsky's work serves also as a precursor to Activity Theory.

Media Theory

The unique possibilities afforded by emerging media represents a significant area of study within the field of Instructional Systems Technology. Our researchers are ever eager to find new ways of leveraging technologies against the problem of improving instruction. Some have developed recommendations for optimal sizing and placement of elements within multimedia content while others study the features of digital media, games or specialized learning environments. Some argue that the media itself is irrelevant to learning and it is the content alone which matters.

Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational technology research and development, 42(2), 21-29. doi:10.1007/BF02299088: In this article, the author defends the position he took in an earlier article that the specific media selected for delivery of instructional contnt has neither been shown to influence learning nor will it do so in the future. He cites the results of empirical studies to support his argument. The crux of the argument is that no form of media presents a truly unique attribute that could not be achieved using one or more alternatives. Furthermore, an argument is mounted in favor of discontinuing such research in the future for fear that analyzing both media and method simultaneously confuses the conclusions. Finally, Clark concludes that media decisions must be based on the economics of the situation rather than any inherent learning benefits of afforded by the media.
Dillon, A. (Indiana U., & Gabbard, R. (Indiana U. (1998). Hypermedia as an educational technology: A review of the quantitative research literature on learner comprehension, control and style. Review of Educational Research, 68(3), 322-349.: This article reviews the literature on quantitative analyses of the effectiveness of instructional interventions using a particular type of media — in this case, hypermedia. The analysis ultimately does indicate advantages in certain circumstances, for certain types of learners and those with higher ability levels. This analysis is valuable in that demonstrates some of the types of studies which have been conducted and it highlights the need to account for the particular strengths of available media and the target audience when making instructional design decisions.
Fleming, M. L., & Levie, W. H. (Eds.). (1993). Instructional message design: Principles from the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, Inc.: Message design is and has been a core component of instructional design. This book translates much of the research available at the time of its authorship into presecriptions for those attempting to take advantage of available media. It begins by explaining how perception works, followed by a discussion of memory. Once the foundation has been laid, principles for learning concepts and changing attitudes are reviewed. This book provides guidance for practitioners with a focus on the generating or creating training solutions (rather than those intending to conduct analysis or evaluation). Additionally, this volume summarises much of the findings regarding research on how to manipulate graphics to maximum effect.
Hannafin, M. J., & Rieber, L. P. (1989). Psychological foundations of instructional design for emerging computer-based instructional technologies: Part II. Educational Technology Research and Development, 37(2), 102–114. Springer. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/index/Y7T6105708282702.pdf: This article explores the impact computer-based instruction (CBI) has had on the field of instructional design. It discusses the issues involved in selective use of media capabilities. The ROPES+ framework is introduced for categorizing activities and making decisions with respect to Instructional Design and in the context of a Cognitivist take on learning theory. After description of some of the considerations that must be accounted for while designing, the article concludes with an acknowledgement that the potential of CBI is large and still growing.
Kozma, R. B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate. Educational technology research and development, 42(2), 7–19. Springer. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/index/D1K685Q17K650488.pdf: This article constitutes Kozma's response to Clark's attack on media comparison studies. He argues that we must continue to study the utility of various media in learning systems and he leverages studies of two media-rich instructional treatments to support his argument. He attempts to reframe the argument by assuming that the media have the capability to influence learning and recommending that we study what is an appropriate technique to use with a given media in a given circumstance rather than arguing for its unique overall utility.
Shaffer, D. W. (2006). How computer games help children learn (First., p. 239). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.: This book examines the use of computer games for educational purposes. The author discusses different types of content (i.e. knowledge, skills, values and identity) and how they might be successfully imparted using these interactive media as instructional aids. Each type of content is presented with the results of study of a successful concrete example and in each of these examples, the tools are a part of an instructional treatment lead by an instructor. This book serves to explore the potential of this form of interactive media and provides overviews of several authentic design cases for inspiration.
Shaffer, D. W. (2007). Learning in design. In R. A. Lesh, J. J. Kaput, & E. Hamilton (Eds.), Foundations for the Future In Mathematics Education (pp. 99-126). Mahweh, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved from http://epistemicgames.org/cv/papers/8089_Lesh_CH05.pdf: In this article the author explores how the design studio works as a learning environment. The environment caters to design programs and the author derives the operative components of a functional system and how they contribute to the development of the designer. The design studio and understanding its operation is of particular interest within Instructional Systems Technology because it offers potential strengths in developing design professionals — of which IST is one. This article builds upon the earlier work of Schön by including the physical environment and its affordances.

Systems Theory

Systems thinking is a common thread in much of the Instructional Systems Technology (IST) literature as education deals with complex systems by its nature. Change itself is a common theme within IST and its offshoots since our interventions necessarily involve some form of change. These readings make the argument for taking systems into account during your planning. They focus on organizational change in academic and corporate contexts.

Banathy, B. H. (1995). Developing a systems view of education. Educational Technology, 35(3), 53–57. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/recordDetail?accno=EJ503496: This article contrasts traditional scientific thinking with a systems-oriented approach. The traditional scientific approach assumes that it is possible to identify a clear cause and its effects while systems thinking recognizes interrelated factors where a combination of causes might contribute to effects and even the effects might include changes to some of the contributing factors. It is much simpler to study individual subsystems but this, unfortunately, results in a partial and often misleading picture. As a complex system, education must be viewed as such if we are to achieve success and this article provides a framework for cultivating this view.
Dormant, D. (1999). Implementing Human Performance Technology. In H. Stolovitch & E. Keeps (Eds.), Handbook of Human Performance Technology (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass/Pfeiffer.: This book chapter from the second edition of the handbook for Human Performance Technology (HPT) is aimed at practitioners. It focuses on the role and function of the change agent, or one who introduces and promotes change within an organization. It takes the view that all HPT interventions are changes requiring agency. Success of a change is determined by target user perceptions of: relative advantage, simplicity, compatibility, adaptability and social impact of the change. The phases of adoption (in keeping with Rogers' theory) are discussed and strategies for shepherding people through them are offered. The chapter effectively introduces readers to the importance of the change agent and what the role entails.
Duffy, F. M. (1996). The Redesign Model. Designing high-performance schools. Delray Beach, FL: St. Lucie Press.: The author of this article has looked at the American educational system and identified serious problems and, by applying a systems view, develops a radical solution. The author argues that his systemic analysis enables him to address these issues more effectively than solutions that simply address individual symptoms. The proposed solution accounts for the needs of multiple levels of stakeholder, incentives, repurposing of existing resources in an economical fashion. This proposal represents the application of systems thinking to the design of a proposed radical change designed to be widely embraced by the target community.
Hammer, M., & Champy, J. (1993). Reengineering — The path to change. Reengineering the Corporation: A Manifesto for Business Revolution (pp. 31-49). New York, NY: Harper Collins.: The author identifies a significant problem commonly faced by school redesign efforts: lack of buy-in from those subjected to the change. The chapter recommends involving stakeholders early on in the process and taking their input with respect to the design and keep them involved throughout. When it reaches the implementation phase, those involved must be supported and rewarded for making the desired change(s). This chapter provides a process for implementing large-scale change within a school, but the concepts still apply in other large organizations and the author's work is often cited in the literature on systemic change.
Lee, S., & Reigeluth, C. M. (2007). Community Involvement in Decatur’s Journey Toward Excellence. In F. M. Duffy & P. L. Chance (Eds.), Strategic Communication During Whole-System Change: Advice and Guidance for School District Leaders and PR Specialists (Leading Systemic School Improvement) (pp. 213-232). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.: In this paper, the authors detail the process they followed and the results they obtained as they embarked upon a systemic change effort in the Metropolitan School District of Decatur Township, an urban school district. The article discusses the motivation behind the endeavor and describes the purpose of each event as well as the participants and how they were selected for participation. Each event description includes reflection upon the reasons for their success or failure and the article wraps up with the anticipated next steps.
Markus, M. L., & Benjamin, R. I. (1997). The Magic Bullet Theory in IT-Enabled Transformation. Sloan Management Review, Winder(2), 55-68. Retrieved from http://layoftheland.net/archive/web/mis-575/course_docs/topic_4/Markus.magicbullet.pdf: This article discusses the importance of people in the success or failure of any planned change, both target audience and the change agents who promote acceptance of such change. The authors point out that those who recognize the need for a change often view the need for change, particularly in the case of the deployment of technology systems, as self-evident and neglect expending sufficient effort to prepare the target audience for the change. This neglect often results in failure of the intervention. The article serves to highlight the importance of the human component in a successful planned change.
Reigeluth, C. M. (1987). The search for meaningful reform: A third-wave educational system. Journal of Instructional Development, 10(4), 3-14. Springer. doi:10.1007/BF02905306: This article applies describes reengineering as a process of thorough analysis, taking nothing for granted and radical redesign. It is argued that reengineering entails analyzing the system to spot inefficiencies and fragmentation and redesign the process from scratch in fundamental ways so as to eliminate (not simply reduce) the inefficiencies. Examples of successful applications of reengineering are provided to make the concepts concrete. This article applies the systems thinking that is so important to Instructional Systems Technology to understanding business contexts and improving upon them.

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